More notes from Chp3 of MachineShop Basics

This posting is about nonferrous metals used in the Metalworking Industry
NONFERROUS METALS
These are metals other than iron, important nonferrous metals are
o copper
o zinc
o tin
o antimony
o aluminum
Copper
Copper is a very useful metal in its pure form and its various alloys such as brass and bronze. Copper has a reddish brown color, it is very ductile and malleable; also it is very tenacious and is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. At 1980 degrees Fahrenheit pure copper melts and it is1940 degrees Fahrenheit for commercial copper.
Zinc
At ordinary temperatures zinc is brittle; it becomes ductile and malleable at temperatures between 212 and 300 degrees Fahrenheit, then brittle again at 410 degrees Fahrenheit. Some of the uses of zinc are
o lining cisterns
o coating water pipes
o eaves
o gutters

Tin
Tin has a low melting point, that of 450 degrees Fahrenheit, it is very ductile and can easily be drawn into wire at 212 degrees F or rolled into very thin sheets.
Antimony

Antimony resembles tin and hard and brittle metal, and it is used in forming alloys as it combines easily with other metals.
Lead
Lead is the heaviest of all the common metals, and melts at 621 degree F, it is malleable, ductile, and it can be cut with a knife. Also lead is not a good conductor of electricity, and has low tensile strength.
Bismuth
Is a unique metal in that its specific gravity decreases under pressure, and it expands on cooling. Bismuth has a melting point of 520 F, and is frequently added with antimony in type metals because it fills the molds completely on solidification.
Aluminum
Is made by the aid of electricity from cryolite and bauxite, and is ductile and malleable. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is the lightest of all metals.
Refractory Metals
With melting points above 3632 F, tantalum, tungsten, and molybdenum are called refractory metals. These metals are made by powder metallurgy rather than smelting.
Tungsten and Molybdenum
Tungsten and molybdenum are extensively used of the ten refractory metals, with tungsten having the highest melting point of all metals. The use of these two metals is due to their high melting points, and the ability to retain strength and stiffness at high temperatures. Tungsten and molybdenum is used extensively in the electrical and electronic industries.
Tantalum
Is almost completely resistant to corrosion and chemical attack also it has the ability to immobilize residual gases in electronic tubes at high temperatures. Other properties are its high melting point, low vapor pressure, thermal expansion and the ease of fabrication. Tantalum has the ability to form highly stable anodic films.
Columbian
Is a sister metal to found in the same ore as tantalum, and its properties are somewhat similar to tantalum; Tantalum and Columbian are malleable and ductile as mild steel.
Nonferrous Alloys
Two or more metals combined that contain iron, here are some of the more important alloys.
Brass
Brass comes in many varieties, and is composed of copper and zinc in various proportions. Also small percentages of tin, lead and other metals are included tin, lead.
Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
Aluminum
There is no limit to the number of alloys and aluminum the can be produced. Elements used in the casting of aluminum are copper, silicon, magnesium, nickel, iron, zinc and manganese.
Babbitt metal
Discovered by Isaac Babbitt in 1839, it is an alloy of tin, antimony and copper.
Other Nonferrous Alloys
Monel metal: this alloy is made up of copper, nickel and a small percentage of iron. It has a melting point of 2480 f also it can be forged between 165 degrees, and 1100 degrees F. Monel metal is used in ships propellers.
Muntz metal: this alloy is made up 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin, and used for applications in which hard sheet brass is needed.
Tobin bronze: this alloy contains 58 to 60 percent copper, 40 percent tin with small percentages of iron tin and lead.
Delta metal: this alloy is very similar in composition to Tobin bronze.
White metal: used in bearings, this alloy is made of zinc, and tin of zinc, tin and lead.
Tantung: Is the name for alloys made of cobalt, chromium and tungsten with either tantalum or Columbian carbide, and other components added. These alloys have great hardness, strength, toughness, and resistance to wear, heat, impact, corrosion, and erosion even at extremely high temperatures.

I have been reading other material as well, these notes are from the U.S. Army Machining Course at http://opensourcemachine.org/us-army-courses.

NOTES FROM US ARMY MACHINE COURSES

FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINE TOOLS

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE MACHINE SHOP

MACHINE SHOP WORK

SCOPE
Work in a machine shop includes all cold-metal work by an operator using hand tools or power tools for the removal of material to a specified shape or form. This does not include sheet metal work or coppersmithing.

LAYING OUT WORK
Laying out is a shop term, it means to scribe lines, circles, centers, and so forth on the surface of material that serves as a guide in making the finished work piece. These lines must be scribed out with the greatest accuracy or the part will be of no use.
SCRIBING LINES OF METAL
Layout dye is used in the scribing of lines on metal, it is blue in color, and provides excellent contrast between metal and the layout lines. Before applying the dye clean the work surface of all oil and grease or the dye will not adhere to the metal.
COMMON LAYOUT TOOLS
SCRIBER: A scriber is the layout tool used to produce lines, it is made of hardened steel and is kept clean by honing on an oilstone.
DIVIDER: A divider is used to layout circles, arcs, and radii. The legs of the divider must be kept shape, and to the same length. Use a steel rule in setting the needed dimension to be scribed on a work piece.
TRAMMEL: When circles, arc, and radii are to large to use a divider a trammel is used. The trammel is made up of three parts: a beam, two sliding heads with scriber points and an adjusting screw
HERMAPRODITE CALIPER: IS A TOOL USED TO LAY OUT LINES PARALLEL WITH THE EDGES OF A WORKPIECE. Also it can be used to locate the center of an cylindrical shaped work piece.
SURFACE GAGE: Has many uses and is most often used for layout work, it can scribe lines at any distance parallel to the work surface. A square and a surface plate are needed to set the surface gage at the desired dimension
Surface Plate; Provides a true smooth pane surface, from which dimensions are measured, usually they are made of granite.
Vernier Height Gage: The height gage is a special caliper on a special foot block for use on a surface plate. Common sizes are 10, 18, and 24 inches. It uses various attachments to scribe lines; a dial indicator can be mounted to make precision measurements.

Combination Square Set: is used in a number of layout operations. The square consists of a blade, square head, protractor and center head. Here the that parts that make up a square set.
The Blade is designed to allow different heads to slide along the blade and be clamped in any desired location.
The Square Head is designed with a 45 and 90 degree edge and can be used as a try square and miter square as well as a depth rule. With a split level in the head it can also be used as a square.
The Protractor Head has a revolving turret graduated in degrees from 0 to 180 of to 90 and can be used to lay out and measure angles to and accuracy of 1 degree.
The Center Head is used to locate and layout the center of cylindrical workplaces.


Bevel Protractor has an adjustable blade with an graduated dial, the dial is marked out in degrees through a complete circle of 360 degrees
STEPS IN MAKING A LAYOUT
o Study the shop drawing or blueprint before cutting off stock, allow enough material to square the ends if required.
o Remove all grease and oil from the work surface and apply layout dye.
o Locate and scribe a base line, all measurements are made from this line. If the work piece has one true edge that can be used as a base line.
o Using the base line as a reference line, locate and scribe all center lines for each circle, radius of arc.
o Mark the points where the center lines intersect using a sharp prick punch.
o Scribe all circles, radii and arcs using a divider or trammel.
o Using the correct type protractor, locate and scribe all straight and angular lines.
o Scribe all lines for internal openings.
o All layout lines should be clear, sharp and fine, reapply layout dye to all messy, wide, or incorrect lines and rescribe.
JIGS AND FIXTURES
Aid in the manufacturing of parts, accurate and interchangeable.
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS AND BLUEPRINTS
Mechanical drawings are made with special instruments and give a true representation of the object to be made, including size, description, material used, and method of manufacture.
WORKING FROM DRAWINGS
A detail print shows the individual part to be made, with two or more orthographic (straight-on) views of the part, and in some cases shows an isometric projection. An isometric projection shows what the part will look like when complete. Every drawing has a number, and a title box which shows the part name, the scale used, the pattern number, and the material required. Also shown is the assembly or subassembly print number to which the part belongs, the job order number the quanity and the date of the order. Along with the name of the person who drew, checked and approved the drawing. Building a part to the print depends on the following:
o Correctly reading and observing all the data on the drawing.
o Using the correct tools and instruments for laying out the job.
o Using the baseline method of locating the dimensional points during the layout.
o Observing all tolerances and allowances
o Accurate measuring of part throughout the fabricating process
o Allowing for expansion of the work piece by heat generated by cutting and machining operations
Limits of Accuracy

Properties, Identification, and Heat treatment of Metals
GENERAL
METAL CLASSIFICATION
Metals are ferrous or nonferrous, iron being the main element in a ferrous metal. A metal can contain less than 50% iron if it contains more iron than any other metal.
FERROUS
Ferrous metals include cast iron, steel and various steel alloys. The only difference between iron and steel is carbon content. Cast iron has more than 2% carbon, while steel has less than 2%.

With a blog that goes by the name of metal chips I need postings about materials and Metals, here is a start.

Chapter 3 Materials

Materials are classified as metallic and nonmetallic, metallic is divided into ferrous and nonferrous. Here are some examples.

FERROUS

1. IRON

2. STEEL

3. VARIOUS ALLOYS

NONFERROUS

1. COPPER

2. ALUMINUM

3. TITANIUM

Nonmetallic materials such ceramics, glass, and graphite are inorganic materials; wood, rubber, and plastics are organic materials.

PROPERTIES

A material has certain properties that define behavior and characteristics under various conditions

Desirable Properties

Static strength and dynamic strength are desirable in any material, along with low cost. Some materials are used even if they have some poor characteristics, an example would be in casting materials the following is desirable.

o Low melting point

o Good fluidity when melted

o A minimum of porosity

o Low shrinkage

Definition of Properties

o Brittle, Breaks with a clean break, the harder a metal is the more brittle it is.

o Cold short is the name given to a metal that can not be worked under a hammer or rolling and can not be bent cold without the edges cracking. It must not be worked under a pressure of dull red.

o Ductile: Easily drawn out, pliable, material is ductile when it can be extended by pulling,

o Elastic limit: The greatest strain that a substance can endure and still completely spring back to the original shape when the strain is released.

o Fusible: Capable of being melted of liquefied by the action of heat.

o Hardness: The ability to resist damage.

o Homogeneous: Of the same kind or nature

o Hot short: more or less brittle when heated.

o Melting point of a solid: The temperature which a solid becomes a liquid or gas. Melting points range from -39 degrees F to 3000 degrees F.

o Resilience: The act or quality of elasticity, the property of springing back , or recoiling upon removal of a pressure (as with a spring).

o Specific gravity: The weight of a given substance relative to an equal bulk of some other substance, which is taken as a standard of comparison.

o Strength: The ability of a substance to resist force without breaking or yielding, solidity or toughness.

o Tensile strength: The greatest longitudinal stress that can be applied to a substance without tearing it apart.

o Toughness: A substance having the ability to resist great strain, and absorb energy without failure.

Metals

Is any element (silver, iron, etc) that carries a positive charge when dissolve in acid solution and seeks the negative pole in an electric cell. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, and can be melted, formed or machined.

Ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals are those metals that contain iron, usually they are magnetic, and can be pure iron or an alloy.

IRON

Pure iron is crystalline in structure, and is a relativity soft metal. There are three temperatures that affect iron, they are 2782 degrees F, the temperature iron solidifies, 1648 degrees F, and 1416 degrees F. Here are the four solid phases of iron.

• Alpha iron- is soft, magnetic and incapable of dissolving carbon from atmospheric temperature to 1416 degrees F.
• Beta iron -is feebly magnetic, hard, and brittle, it occurs from 1416 to 1648 degrees F.
• Gamma iron- takes up carbon, and occurs between 1648 and 2554 degrees F. There are elements that effect gamma iron, carbon; nickel and manganese help prevent it passing into alpha iron. Chromium, tungsten, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, arsenic, and sulfur helps in the passage from hard beta iron to soft alpha iron.

Delta iron- This type of iron has very little use, reaching 2554 to 2782 degrees F indicates that the internal structure of the metal has changed from gamma to delta iron.

Pig Iron

Pig iron is combined with carbon, silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, and manganese, with carbon making up 2 to 4.5 percent of the content.

Cast Iron

Is really remelted pig iron, it is not malleable, the carbon content is over 2 percent, and cannot be formed, shaped, rolled or drawn into shapes of any use. In industry cast iron is used for castings, and there are four types.

o Gray cast iron- mostly used in castings, has a high percentage of graphite, and is tough with low tensile strength. The carbon content is from 2.5 to 3.5 percent.

o White cast iron- is a casting of extreme hardness and brittleness, with a lower carbon content of 2.0 to 2.5 percent.

o Malleable cast iron- castings made of hard, brittle white cast iron and then annealed, which transforms it to a form of steel.

o Wrought iron- is actually a form of low carbon steel which contains a large amount of slag, up to 1 to 2 percent. What is called the puddling process removes this slag.

STEEL

This general term describes an alloy in which iron is the base metal, and carbon, is the most important added element anywhere from 0 to 2.0 percent. This is a form of what is called pure steel, and has never been made in large quantity. Manganese is the third alloying element of plain carbon steels along with small quantities of silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. Plain carbon steels contain a few hundredths to 1.4 percent carbon; properties depend on carbon content and heat treatment.

Low carbon steels are used in the rolled or the annealed condition; contrast this with high carbon steels are used where hardness is needed. Increasing the carbon content of steel to a certain percent increases its strength. Mild steel with a content of 0.1 percent carbon has a tensile strength of approximately 50,000 psi, increasing the carbon content to 1.2 percent then the tensile strength is 140,000 psi. A carbon content of 2.0 percent is the theoretical upper limit for steel.

Other elements are added to steel as well, they are as follows, and their effects.

o Phosphorus- enhances the hardness of steel and is able to better resist abrasion; however, it makes steel weak against shocks and vibrations.

o Sulfur- increases brittleness, content should not exceed 0.02 to 0.05 percent

o Manganese- increases strength, hardness and soundness of steel

o Nickel- increases strength and toughness of steel

o Aluminum- improves soundness of ingots and castings

o Vanadium- makes steel nonfatigable, ductile, high tensile strength, and high elastic limit; also resistant to shocks

o Molybdenum- is used in crankshafts, propeller shafts, gun, and rifle barrels also boilerplates

HIGH SPEED STEELS

Can be used as cutting tools for they retain hardness at high temperatures, even if the edges becomes red hot. High speed steels contain 12 to 20 percent tungsten, 2 to 3 percent chromium, and 1 to 2 percent vanadium along with cobalt which is sometimes added. Carbon content is low from 0.65 to 0.75 percent. The two most commonly used high speed steels are 18-4-1 and 14-4-2; the numbers refer to tungsten, chromium and vanadium.

STAINLESS STEELS

When properly heat treated and finished stainless steel resist oxidation and corrosion although they are not absolutely corrosion resistant. Medical and dental instruments contain 12 to 14 percent chromium.

CAST STEEL

Is stronger than cast iron when used in castings, stainless steel casting resist oxidation at temperatures up to 1800 degrees F. Cast steel does not pour as sharply as iron and shrinkage is greater.